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Trace: • note • interaction_effects_in_multiple_regression_analysis • factor_analysis_assignment • regression_lecture_note_for_r • multiple_regression_exercise • krackhardt_datasets • descriptive_stat • dummy_variables_with_significant_interaction • the_r_project_for_statistical_computing • johnson_s_hierarchical_clustering
c:ms:regression_lecture_note_for_r

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c:ms:regression_lecture_note_for_r [2024/05/28 22:33] – hkimscilc:ms:regression_lecture_note_for_r [2024/06/06 08:07] (current) – [Graphics output] hkimscil
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 +====== Code ======
 +You need to install some packages 
 +<code>
 +install.packages("lm.beta")
 +install.packages("ppcor") 
 +install.packages("ggplot2")
 +
 +</code>
 <code> <code>
 ################ ################
 rnorm2 <- function(n,mean,sd) { mean+sd*scale(rnorm(n)) }  rnorm2 <- function(n,mean,sd) { mean+sd*scale(rnorm(n)) } 
-n <- 400+n <- 16
  
 set.seed(101) set.seed(101)
Line 12: Line 20:
 points(rand.00, col="red") points(rand.00, col="red")
  
-b = 170 / 265+b <- 170 / 265 
 +b <- round(b,1)
 b b
 y <- b * x + rand.00 y <- b * x + rand.00
Line 30: Line 39:
 lm.y.x <- lm(y ~ x, data = df) lm.y.x <- lm(y ~ x, data = df)
 summary(lm.y.x) summary(lm.y.x)
-# str(lm.y.x)+ 
 +########################### 
 +# double check with this  
 +########################### 
 +str(lm.y.x) 
 +y.res <- lm.y.x$residuals 
 +y.pre <- lm.y.x$fitted.values 
 +y.exp <- y.pre - m.y 
 +plot(x,y.pre) 
 +plot(x,y.res) 
 +plot(x,y.exp) 
 +###########################
 lm.y.x$coefficients lm.y.x$coefficients
 intercept <- lm.y.x$coefficients[1] intercept <- lm.y.x$coefficients[1]
Line 74: Line 94:
 b b
 a a
 +# we got these from the above
 +slope
 +intercept 
  
  
 summary(lm.y.x) summary(lm.y.x)
 lm.y.x$coefficients lm.y.x$coefficients
- 
 # str(lm.y.x) # str(lm.y.x)
  
Line 97: Line 119:
 r.square <- ss.reg / ss.y  r.square <- ss.reg / ss.y 
 r.square  r.square 
 +sqrt(r.square) 
 +cor(x,y)
  
 df.tot <- df.y df.tot <- df.y
Line 130: Line 153:
 res <- lm.y.x$residuals res <- lm.y.x$residuals
 reg <- lm.y.x$fitted.values-m.y reg <- lm.y.x$fitted.values-m.y
 +
 +# The above can be derived as follows
 +y.hat <- intercept + (slope * x)
 +y.hat
 +head(y.hat)
 +head(lm.y.x$fitted.values)
 +y.pre <- y.hat 
 +y.res <- y - y.pre
 +y.res
 +head(res)
 +head(y.res)
 +
 +y.reg <- y.pre - m.y
 +head(reg)
 +head(y.reg)
 +########################################
  
 # This is essentially a perfect linear  # This is essentially a perfect linear 
Line 142: Line 181:
 summary(lm.res.x) summary(lm.res.x)
 summary(lm.y.x) summary(lm.y.x)
-</code> 
  
 +########################################
 +# Now let's get back to the lm output 
 +# this is to evalue the significance of 
 +# the slope of x (b)
 +summary(lm.y.x)
 +
 +# the slope, we already got this
 +b <- slope 
 +# intercept 
 +a <- intercept
 +
 +# the real data look like this
 +plot(x,y)
 +abline(h = mean(y), lwd=1.5, col="red")
 +abline(lm(y ~ x), lwd=1.5, col="blue")
 +
 +# blue line is regression line 
 +# this slope is an estimate of a real 
 +# thing (population) rather than the 
 +# sample we are using right now)
 +library(ggplot2)
 +
 +ggplot(data = df, aes(x,y)) +
 +  geom_point() +
 +  geom_smooth(method="lm", color="red", fill = "blue")
 +
 +# the real slope should reside in between 
 +# the violet area. The area is estimated 
 +# with standard error of slop (regression 
 +# coefficient)
 +
 +# in word
 +# se for b is 
 +# from summary(lm.y.x)
 +
 +summary(lm.y.x)
 +se.b <- 0.0401 
 +ci.se.b <- 1.96 * se.b 
 +# this is the lowest estimate
 +b - ci.se.b
 +# the highest estimate
 +b + ci.se.b 
 +# calculated estimate 
 +b
 +
 +# how to get se for b?
 +# https://www.statology.org/standard-error-of-regression-slope/
 +# see also http://commres.net/wiki/standard_error_of_regression_coefficients
 +
 +ss.res
 +ss.x
 +# we didn't get ss.x
 +ss.x <- sum((x-m.x)^2)
 +ss.x 
 +
 +sqrt( (ss.res/(n-2)) / ss.x )
 +# the above is the same as the below
 +sqrt( ss.res / (n-2)*ss.x )
 +sqrt( 1/(n-2) * (ss.res/ss.x))
 +se.b <- sqrt( 1/(n-2) * (ss.res/ss.x))
 +
 +# now 
 +summary(lm.y.x)
 +# if b is 0, b does not do anything (null hypothesis)
 +# To test if b is working, we do t-test by
 +# b (current coefficient) - 0 (not working) / se
 +# = t.calculated. We test if this is significant
 +# tp(t.b.cal, df=n-2)
 +
 +t.b.cal <- (b - 0)/se.b 
 +t.b.cal 
 +# k = num of predictor variables
 +k <- 1
 +df.t <- n-k-1
 +
 +2*pt(t.b.cal, df.t, lower.tail = F)
 +pf(t.b.cal^2, 1, df.t, lower.tail = F)
 +</code>
  
 +====== Output ======
 <code> <code>
 +> ################
 > rnorm2 <- function(n,mean,sd) { mean+sd*scale(rnorm(n)) }  > rnorm2 <- function(n,mean,sd) { mean+sd*scale(rnorm(n)) } 
-> n <- 400+> n <- 16
 >  > 
 > set.seed(101) > set.seed(101)
Line 157: Line 275:
 > points(rand.00, col="red") > points(rand.00, col="red")
 >  > 
-> b = 170 / 265+> b <- 170 / 265 
 +> b <- round(b,1)
 > b > b
-[1] 0.6415094+[1] 0.6
 > y <- b * x + rand.00 > y <- b * x + rand.00
 >  > 
Line 165: Line 284:
 > head(df) > head(df)
          x        y          x        y
-1 260.3289 164.1701 +1 256.4615 144.9723 
-2 273.9897 149.7065 +2 273.7812 167.6050 
-3 254.9034 140.6106 +3 249.5828 141.2775 
-4 268.7321 179.5289 +4 267.1155 135.1836 
-5 270.2313 176.5863 +5 269.0162 161.7509 
-6 283.6541 172.5179+6 286.0342 183.7182
 >  > 
 > # plot method 0 > # plot method 0
Line 189: Line 308:
 Residuals: Residuals:
     Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max      Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
--39.653  -8.878  -0.226   7.322  30.630 +-25.508  -5.847   2.617   7.595  15.963 
  
 Coefficients: Coefficients:
-            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)     +            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
-(Intercept)   0.8022    10.6435   0.075     0.94     +(Intercept) -52.8818    54.9507  -0.962  0.35220    
-x             0.6385     0.0401  15.922   <2e-16 ***+x             0.7996     0.2071   3.862  0.00173 **
 --- ---
 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
  
-Residual standard error: 12.01 on 398 degrees of freedom +Residual standard error: 12.03 on 14 degrees of freedom 
-Multiple R-squared:  0.3891, Adjusted R-squared:  0.3876  +Multiple R-squared:  0.5158, Adjusted R-squared:  0.4812  
-F-statistic: 253.5 on 1 and 398 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16+F-statistic: 14.91 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: 0.001727
  
-> # str(lm.y.x)+>  
 +> ########################### 
 +> # double check with this  
 +> ########################### 
 +> str(lm.y.x) 
 +List of 12 
 + $ coefficients : Named num [1:2] -52.9 0.8 
 +  ..- attr(*, "names")= chr [1:2] "(Intercept)" "x" 
 + $ residuals    : Named num [1:16] -7.2 1.58 -5.4 -25.51 -0.46 ... 
 +  ..- attr(*, "names")= chr [1:16] "1" "2" "3" "4" ... 
 + $ effects      : Named num [1:16] -636 -46.45 -3.351 -24.236 0.728 ... 
 +  ..- attr(*, "names")= chr [1:16] "(Intercept)" "x" "" "" ... 
 + $ rank         : int 2 
 + $ fitted.values: Named num [1:16] 152 166 147 161 162 ... 
 +  ..- attr(*, "names")= chr [1:16] "1" "2" "3" "4" ... 
 + $ assign       : int [1:2] 0 1 
 + $ qr           :List of 5 
 +  ..$ qr   : num [1:16, 1:2] -4 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 ... 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 2 
 +  .. .. ..$ : chr [1:16] "1" "2" "3" "4" ... 
 +  .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "(Intercept)" "x" 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "assign")= int [1:2] 0 1 
 +  ..$ qraux: num [1:2] 1.25 1.18 
 +  ..$ pivot: int [1:2] 1 2 
 +  ..$ tol  : num 1e-07 
 +  ..$ rank : int 2 
 +  ..- attr(*, "class")= chr "qr" 
 + $ df.residual  : int 14 
 + $ xlevels      : Named list() 
 + $ call         : language lm(formula = y ~ x, data = df) 
 + $ terms        :Classes 'terms', 'formula'  language y ~ x 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "variables")= language list(y, x) 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "factors")= int [1:2, 1] 0 1 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 2 
 +  .. .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "y" "x" 
 +  .. .. .. ..$ : chr "x" 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "term.labels")= chr "x" 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "order")= int 1 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "intercept")= int 1 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "response")= int 1 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, ".Environment")=<environment: R_GlobalEnv>  
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "predvars")= language list(y, x) 
 +  .. ..- attr(*, "dataClasses")= Named chr [1:2] "numeric" "numeric" 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "names")= chr [1:2] "y" "x" 
 + $ model        :'data.frame': 16 obs. of  2 variables: 
 +  ..$ y: num [1:16] 145 168 141 135 162 ... 
 +  ..$ x: num [1:16] 256 274 250 267 269 ... 
 +  ..- attr(*, "terms")=Classes 'terms', 'formula'  language y ~ x 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "variables")= language list(y, x) 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "factors")= int [1:2, 1] 0 1 
 +  .. .. .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 2 
 +  .. .. .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "y" "x" 
 +  .. .. .. .. ..$ : chr "x" 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "term.labels")= chr "x" 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "order")= int 1 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "intercept")= int 1 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "response")= int 1 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, ".Environment")=<environment: R_GlobalEnv>  
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "predvars")= language list(y, x) 
 +  .. .. ..- attr(*, "dataClasses")= Named chr [1:2] "numeric" "numeric" 
 +  .. .. .. ..- attr(*, "names")= chr [1:2] "y" "x" 
 + - attr(*, "class")= chr "lm" 
 +> y.res <- lm.y.x$residuals 
 +> y.pre <- lm.y.x$fitted.values 
 +> y.exp <- y.pre - m.y 
 +> plot(x,y.pre) 
 +> plot(x,y.res) 
 +> plot(x,y.exp) 
 +> ###########################
 > lm.y.x$coefficients > lm.y.x$coefficients
 (Intercept)           x  (Intercept)           x 
-  0.8021833   0.6384823 +-52.8817788   0.7995539 
 > intercept <- lm.y.x$coefficients[1] > intercept <- lm.y.x$coefficients[1]
 > slope <- lm.y.x$coefficients[2] > slope <- lm.y.x$coefficients[2]
 > intercept > intercept
 (Intercept)  (Intercept) 
-  0.8021833 +  -52.88178 
 > slope > slope
         x          x 
-0.6384823 +0.7995539 
 >  > 
 > # library(ggplot2) > # library(ggplot2)
Line 224: Line 411:
 > ss.y <- sum((y-mean(y))^2) > ss.y <- sum((y-mean(y))^2)
 > ss.y > ss.y
-[1] 94052.83+[1] 4183.193
 > df.y <- length(y)-1 > df.y <- length(y)-1
 > df.y > df.y
-[1] 399+[1] 15
 > ss.y/df.y > ss.y/df.y
-[1] 235.7214+[1] 278.8795
 > var(y) > var(y)
          [,1]          [,1]
-[1,] 235.7214+[1,] 278.8795
 >  > 
 > m.x <- mean(x) > m.x <- mean(x)
Line 239: Line 426:
 > df.tot <- n-1 > df.tot <- n-1
 > sp/df.tot > sp/df.tot
-[1] 143.6585+[1] 179.8996
 > cov.xy <- cov(x,y) > cov.xy <- cov(x,y)
 >  > 
Line 248: Line 435:
 > r.xy > r.xy
           [,1]           [,1]
-[1,] 0.6237932+[1,] 0.7181756
 > cor(x,y) > cor(x,y)
           [,1]           [,1]
-[1,] 0.6237932+[1,] 0.7181756
 > cor.test(x,y) > cor.test(x,y)
  
Line 257: Line 444:
  
 data:  x and y data:  x and y
-t = 15.922, df = 398, p-value < 2.2e-16+t = 3.8616, df = 14, p-value = 0.001727
 alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0 alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
 95 percent confidence interval: 95 percent confidence interval:
- 0.5599929 0.6802388+ 0.3454526 0.8951901
 sample estimates: sample estimates:
       cor        cor 
-0.6237932 +0.7181756 
  
 >  > 
Line 274: Line 461:
 > b > b
           [,1]           [,1]
-[1,] 0.6384823+[1,] 0.7995539
 > a > a
           [,1]           [,1]
-[1,] 0.8021833+[1,] -52.88178 
 +> # we got these from the above 
 +> slope 
 +        x  
 +0.7995539  
 +> intercept  
 +(Intercept)  
 +  -52.88178 
 >  > 
 >  > 
Line 287: Line 481:
 Residuals: Residuals:
     Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max      Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
--39.653  -8.878  -0.226   7.322  30.630 +-25.508  -5.847   2.617   7.595  15.963 
  
 Coefficients: Coefficients:
-            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)     +            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
-(Intercept)   0.8022    10.6435   0.075     0.94     +(Intercept) -52.8818    54.9507  -0.962  0.35220    
-x             0.6385     0.0401  15.922   <2e-16 ***+x             0.7996     0.2071   3.862  0.00173 **
 --- ---
 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
  
-Residual standard error: 12.01 on 398 degrees of freedom +Residual standard error: 12.03 on 14 degrees of freedom 
-Multiple R-squared:  0.3891, Adjusted R-squared:  0.3876  +Multiple R-squared:  0.5158, Adjusted R-squared:  0.4812  
-F-statistic: 253.5 on 1 and 398 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16+F-statistic: 14.91 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: 0.001727
  
 > lm.y.x$coefficients > lm.y.x$coefficients
 (Intercept)           x  (Intercept)           x 
-  0.8021833   0.6384823  +-52.8817788   0.7995539 
-> +
 > # str(lm.y.x) > # str(lm.y.x)
 >  > 
Line 309: Line 502:
 > y <- y > y <- y
 > m.y > m.y
-[1] 170+[1] 159
 >  > 
 > res <- y - y.pred > res <- y - y.pred
 > reg <- y.pred - m.y > reg <- y.pred - m.y
 > ss.y  > ss.y 
-[1] 94052.83+[1] 4183.193
 > ss.res <- sum(res^2) > ss.res <- sum(res^2)
 > ss.reg <- sum(reg^2) > ss.reg <- sum(reg^2)
 > ss.y > ss.y
-[1] 94052.83+[1] 4183.193
 > ss.res > ss.res
-[1] 57455.18+[1] 2025.602
 > ss.reg > ss.reg
-[1] 36597.65+[1] 2157.592
 > ss.res + ss.reg > ss.res + ss.reg
-[1] 94052.83+[1] 4183.193
 >  > 
 > r.square <- ss.reg / ss.y  > r.square <- ss.reg / ss.y 
 > r.square  > r.square 
-[1] 0.389118 +[1] 0.5157762 
-> +> sqrt(r.square) 
 +[1] 0.7181756 
 +> cor(x,y) 
 +          [,1] 
 +[1,] 0.7181756
 >  > 
 > df.tot <- df.y > df.tot <- df.y
Line 338: Line 535:
 [1] 1 [1] 1
 > df.res > df.res
-[1] 398+[1] 14
 > df.tot > df.tot
-[1] 399+[1] 15
 >  > 
 > ss.tot <- ss.y > ss.tot <- ss.y
 > ss.reg > ss.reg
-[1] 36597.65+[1] 2157.592
 > ss.res > ss.res
-[1] 57455.18+[1] 2025.602
 > ss.tot > ss.tot
-[1] 94052.83+[1] 4183.193
 >  > 
 > ms.reg <- ss.reg / df.reg > ms.reg <- ss.reg / df.reg
 > ms.res <- ss.res / df.res > ms.res <- ss.res / df.res
 > ms.reg > ms.reg
-[1] 36597.65+[1] 2157.592
 > ms.res > ms.res
-[1] 144.3597+[1] 144.6858
 >  > 
 > f.cal <- ms.reg/ms.res > f.cal <- ms.reg/ms.res
 > f.cal > f.cal
-[1] 253.517+[1] 14.91225
 >  > 
 > p.val <- pf(f.cal, df.reg, df.res, lower.tail = F) > p.val <- pf(f.cal, df.reg, df.res, lower.tail = F)
 > p.val > p.val
-[1] 1.623694e-44+[1] 0.001727459
 > anova(lm.y.x) > anova(lm.y.x)
 Analysis of Variance Table Analysis of Variance Table
  
 Response: y Response: y
-           Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value    Pr(>F)     +          Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value   Pr(>F)    
-x           1  36598   36598  253.52 < 2.2e-16 *** +x          1 2157.6 2157.59  14.912 0.001727 ** 
-Residuals 398  57455     144                      +Residuals 14 2025.6  144.69                    
 --- ---
 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
Line 380: Line 577:
 > res <- lm.y.x$residuals > res <- lm.y.x$residuals
 > reg <- lm.y.x$fitted.values-m.y > reg <- lm.y.x$fitted.values-m.y
 +> 
 +> # The above can be derived as follows
 +> y.hat <- intercept + (slope * x)
 +> y.hat
 +          [,1]
 + [1,] 152.1730
 + [2,] 166.0210
 + [3,] 146.6731
 + [4,] 160.6914
 + [5,] 162.2112
 + [6,] 175.8179
 + [7,] 167.0666
 + [8,] 155.5354
 + [9,] 171.7678
 +[10,] 153.7931
 +[11,] 165.6110
 +[12,] 144.7831
 +[13,] 179.8185
 +[14,] 134.1906
 +[15,] 153.5815
 +[16,] 154.2648
 +attr(,"scaled:center")
 +[1] 0.1070574
 +attr(,"scaled:scale")
 +[1] 0.7608404
 +> head(y.hat)
 +         [,1]
 +[1,] 152.1730
 +[2,] 166.0210
 +[3,] 146.6731
 +[4,] 160.6914
 +[5,] 162.2112
 +[6,] 175.8179
 +> head(lm.y.x$fitted.values)
 +       1        2        3        4        5        6 
 +152.1730 166.0210 146.6731 160.6914 162.2112 175.8179 
 +> y.pre <- y.hat 
 +> y.res <- y - y.pre
 +> y.res
 +             [,1]
 + [1,]  -7.2007773
 + [2,]   1.5839803
 + [3,]  -5.3956693
 + [4,] -25.5078178
 + [5,]  -0.4602376
 + [6,]   7.9002872
 + [7,]  -3.0767953
 + [8,] -16.3176727
 + [9,]   9.3951797
 +[10,] -15.1613471
 +[11,]   7.1934473
 +[12,]   4.4883827
 +[13,]   3.6498214
 +[14,]  15.4541201
 +[15,]  15.9625789
 +[16,]   7.4925197
 +attr(,"scaled:center")
 +[1] 0.1070574
 +attr(,"scaled:scale")
 +[1] 0.7608404
 +> head(res)
 +          1           2           3           4           5           6 
 + -7.2007773   1.5839803  -5.3956693 -25.5078178  -0.4602376   7.9002872 
 +> head(y.res)
 +            [,1]
 +[1,]  -7.2007773
 +[2,]   1.5839803
 +[3,]  -5.3956693
 +[4,] -25.5078178
 +[5,]  -0.4602376
 +[6,]   7.9002872
 +> 
 +> y.reg <- y.pre - m.y
 +> head(reg)
 +         1          2          3          4          5          6 
 + -6.826963   7.021016 -12.326872   1.691427   3.211157  16.817938 
 +> head(y.reg)
 +           [,1]
 +[1,]  -6.826963
 +[2,]   7.021016
 +[3,] -12.326872
 +[4,]   1.691427
 +[5,]   3.211157
 +[6,]  16.817938
 +> ########################################
 >  > 
 > # This is essentially a perfect linear  > # This is essentially a perfect linear 
Line 392: Line 674:
 Residuals: Residuals:
        Min         1Q     Median         3Q        Max         Min         1Q     Median         3Q        Max 
--6.828e-14 -7.900e-15 -5.500e-16  6.410e-15  3.979e-13 +-1.216e-14 -9.993e-15 -2.381e-15  7.912e-15  1.822e-14 
  
 Coefficients: Coefficients:
               Estimate Std. Error    t value Pr(>|t|)                   Estimate Std. Error    t value Pr(>|t|)    
-(Intercept) -1.692e+02  1.937e-14 -8.733e+15   <2e-16 *** +(Intercept) -2.119e+02  5.321e-14 -3.982e+15   <2e-16 *** 
-x            6.385e-01  7.299e-17  8.747e+15   <2e-16 ***+x            7.996e-01  2.005e-16  3.988e+15   <2e-16 ***
 --- ---
 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
  
-Residual standard error: 2.187e-14 on 398 degrees of freedom+Residual standard error: 1.165e-14 on 14 degrees of freedom
 Multiple R-squared:      1, Adjusted R-squared:      1  Multiple R-squared:      1, Adjusted R-squared:      1 
-F-statistic: 7.651e+31 on 1 and 398 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16+F-statistic: 1.59e+31 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16
  
 +경고메시지(들): 
 +summary.lm(lm.reg.x)에서:
 +  essentially perfect fit: summary may be unreliable
 >  > 
 > # The relationship between residuals and  > # The relationship between residuals and 
Line 416: Line 701:
 Residuals: Residuals:
     Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max      Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
--39.653  -8.878  -0.226   7.322  30.630 +-25.508  -5.847   2.617   7.595  15.963 
  
 Coefficients: Coefficients:
               Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)               Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
-(Intercept) -3.586e-15  1.064e+01       0        1 +(Intercept) -1.956e-14  5.495e+01       0        1 
-x            1.186e-17  4.010e-02       0        1+x            6.880e-17  2.071e-01       0        1
  
-Residual standard error: 12.01 on 398 degrees of freedom +Residual standard error: 12.03 on 14 degrees of freedom 
-Multiple R-squared:  6.744e-33, Adjusted R-squared:  -0.002513  +Multiple R-squared:  1.449e-32, Adjusted R-squared:  -0.07143  
-F-statistic: 2.684e-30 on 1 and 398 DF,  p-value: 1+F-statistic: 2.029e-31 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: 1
  
 > summary(lm.y.x) > summary(lm.y.x)
Line 434: Line 719:
 Residuals: Residuals:
     Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max      Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
--39.653  -8.878  -0.226   7.322  30.630 +-25.508  -5.847   2.617   7.595  15.963 
  
 Coefficients: Coefficients:
-            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)     +            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
-(Intercept)   0.8022    10.6435   0.075     0.94     +(Intercept) -52.8818    54.9507  -0.962  0.35220    
-x             0.6385     0.0401  15.922   <2e-16 ***+x             0.7996     0.2071   3.862  0.00173 **
 --- ---
 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
  
-Residual standard error: 12.01 on 398 degrees of freedom +Residual standard error: 12.03 on 14 degrees of freedom 
-Multiple R-squared:  0.3891, Adjusted R-squared:  0.3876  +Multiple R-squared:  0.5158, Adjusted R-squared:  0.4812  
-F-statistic: 253.5 on 1 and 398 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16+F-statistic: 14.91 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: 0.001727
  
 >  > 
 +> ########################################
 +> # Now let's get back to the lm output 
 +> # this is to evalue the significance of 
 +> # the slope of x (b)
 +> summary(lm.y.x)
 +
 +Call:
 +lm(formula = y ~ x, data = df)
 +
 +Residuals:
 +    Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
 +-25.508  -5.847   2.617   7.595  15.963 
 +
 +Coefficients:
 +            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)   
 +(Intercept) -52.8818    54.9507  -0.962  0.35220   
 +x             0.7996     0.2071   3.862  0.00173 **
 +---
 +Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
 +
 +Residual standard error: 12.03 on 14 degrees of freedom
 +Multiple R-squared:  0.5158, Adjusted R-squared:  0.4812 
 +F-statistic: 14.91 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: 0.001727
 +
 >  > 
 +> # the slope, we already got this
 +> b <- slope 
 +> # intercept 
 +> a <- intercept
 >  > 
 +> # the real data look like this
 +> plot(x,y)
 +> abline(h = mean(y), lwd=1.5, col="red")
 +> abline(lm(y ~ x), lwd=1.5, col="blue")
 +> 
 +> # blue line is regression line 
 +> # this slope is an estimate of a real 
 +> # thing (population) rather than the 
 +> # sample we are using right now)
 +> library(ggplot2)
 +> 
 +> ggplot(data = df, aes(x,y)) +
 ++   geom_point() +
 ++   geom_smooth(method="lm", color="red", fill = "blue")
 +`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'
 +> 
 +> # the real slope should reside in between 
 +> # the violet area. The area is estimated 
 +> # with standard error of slop (regression 
 +> # coefficient)
 +> 
 +> # in word
 +> # se for b is 
 +> # from summary(lm.y.x)
 +> 
 +> summary(lm.y.x)
 +
 +Call:
 +lm(formula = y ~ x, data = df)
 +
 +Residuals:
 +    Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
 +-25.508  -5.847   2.617   7.595  15.963 
 +
 +Coefficients:
 +            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)   
 +(Intercept) -52.8818    54.9507  -0.962  0.35220   
 +x             0.7996     0.2071   3.862  0.00173 **
 +---
 +Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
 +
 +Residual standard error: 12.03 on 14 degrees of freedom
 +Multiple R-squared:  0.5158, Adjusted R-squared:  0.4812 
 +F-statistic: 14.91 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: 0.001727
 +
 +> se.b <- 0.0401 
 +> ci.se.b <- 1.96 * se.b 
 +> # this is the lowest estimate
 +> b - ci.se.b
 +        x 
 +0.7209579 
 +> # the highest estimate
 +> b + ci.se.b 
 +        x 
 +0.8781499 
 +> # calculated estimate 
 +> b
 +        x 
 +0.7995539 
 +> 
 +> # how to get se for b?
 +> # https://www.statology.org/standard-error-of-regression-slope/
 +> # see also http://commres.net/wiki/standard_error_of_regression_coefficients
 +> 
 +> ss.res
 +[1] 2025.602
 +> ss.x
 +[1] 3375
 +> # we didn't get ss.x
 +> ss.x <- sum((x-m.x)^2)
 +> ss.x 
 +[1] 3375
 +> 
 +> sqrt( (ss.res/(n-2)) / ss.x )
 +[1] 0.2070504
 +> # the above is the same as the below
 +> sqrt( ss.res / (n-2)*ss.x )
 +[1] 698.7952
 +> sqrt( 1/(n-2) * (ss.res/ss.x))
 +[1] 0.2070504
 +> se.b <- sqrt( 1/(n-2) * (ss.res/ss.x))
 +> 
 +> # now 
 +> summary(lm.y.x)
 +
 +Call:
 +lm(formula = y ~ x, data = df)
 +
 +Residuals:
 +    Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
 +-25.508  -5.847   2.617   7.595  15.963 
 +
 +Coefficients:
 +            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)   
 +(Intercept) -52.8818    54.9507  -0.962  0.35220   
 +x             0.7996     0.2071   3.862  0.00173 **
 +---
 +Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
 +
 +Residual standard error: 12.03 on 14 degrees of freedom
 +Multiple R-squared:  0.5158, Adjusted R-squared:  0.4812 
 +F-statistic: 14.91 on 1 and 14 DF,  p-value: 0.001727
 +
 +> # if b is 0, b does not do anything (null hypothesis)
 +> # To test if b is working, we do t-test by
 +> # b (current coefficient) - 0 (not working) / se
 +> # = t.calculated. We test if this is significant
 +> # tp(t.b.cal, df=n-2)
 +> 
 +> t.b.cal <- (b - 0)/se.b 
 +> t.b.cal 
 +       x 
 +3.861639 
 +> # k = num of predictor variables
 +> k <- 1
 +> df.t <- n-k-1
 +> 
 +> 2*pt(t.b.cal, df.t, lower.tail = F)
 +          x 
 +0.001727459 
 +> pf(t.b.cal^2, 1, df.t, lower.tail = F)
 +          x 
 +0.001727459 
 +>  
 </code> </code>
 +====== Graphics output ======
 +{{:c:ms:pasted:20240606-170733.png}}
 +{{:c:ms:pasted:20240606-170404.png}}
 +{{:c:ms:pasted:20240606-170419.png}}
 +{{:c:ms:pasted:20240606-170434.png}}
 +{{:c:ms:pasted:20240606-170447.png}}
 +{{:c:ms:pasted:20240606-170507.png}}
 +{{:c:ms:pasted:20240606-170523.png}}
 +
c/ms/regression_lecture_note_for_r.1716935598.txt.gz · Last modified: by hkimscil
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